SOCI 422 ARTICLE FOR EXAMS REVIEWED-ARTICLE FOR LECTURE 1

LECTURE ONE

AUTHOR OF THE ARTICLE: Melville J. Herskovits

TITLE OF THE ARTICLE: Peoples and Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa

ARTICLE'S MAIN THEME

The main theme of the article "Peoples and Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa" by Melville J. Herskovits is the diversity and unity of African cultures. The author discusses how sub-Saharan Africa exhibits both heterogeneity and similarities across physical types, languages, and cultural traits.

Some key points:

- While Africa has over 150 million indigenous people compared to only a few million Europeans and others, differences in physical type have not significantly influenced relations between African peoples.

- Linguistically, sub-Saharan Africa has over 700 languages that can be classified into a few major language families, reflecting both fragmentation and unities over large areas.

- At the broadest level, African cultures share many similarities that distinguish them from other world regions. At more local levels, specific cultural traits mark off each group from its neighbors.

- The drawing of colonial boundaries has often disregarded ethnic lines, creating potential tensions as groups demand to be reunited across borders.

So, in summary, the article explores the complex interplay between diversity and commonalities in sub-Saharan Africa, and how this shapes the region's cultures, languages, and peoples. The author argues that both differences and unities must be considered to fully understand the African context.

ARTICLE SUMMARY

The article "Peoples and Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa" by Melville J. Herskovits explores the diversity and unity of African cultures, focusing on the region south of the Sahara. Here is a detailed summary of the article:

Historical and Cultural Background

The article begins by emphasizing that change is a constant in sub-Saharan Africa. While it is unrealistic to attribute excessive stability to African cultures before European occupation, it is also incorrect to overemphasize the changes in contemporary African life. The historical picture is often incomplete due to the lack of written records, making it difficult to portray African cultures accurately. However, the dynamic nature of contemporary Africa is an extension of a continuing characteristic of African life, as seen in the study of African prehistory and the distribution of physical types, languages, and cultures across the region.

Population and Demographics

The population of sub-Saharan Africa is approximately 150 million, with a significant disparity between indigenous Africans and non-indigenous residents. For example, in French West Africa, there are 17 million Africans compared to 63,000 non-indigenous residents. This disparity influences the impact of the outside world on Africa and underscores the importance of considering indigenous African cultures and traditions in any evaluation of the present situation and planning for the future.

Physical Types

The article discusses the various physical types found in sub-Saharan Africa, including the classical Negroids of the Guinea Coast, the Sudanese type, and the "Hamitic" form in East Africa. These differences in physical type have not significantly influenced relations between African peoples. The principal subdivisions encompass great areas, and while there are instances of significant differences, such as in Ruanda-Urundi, these are not numerous. The racial problem, as seen in the color bar of the Union of South Africa, has become important only with recent outside contacts.

Languages

Sub-Saharan Africa has over 700 languages, which can be classified into a few major language families. The Sudanic, Bantu, and Hamitic families were previously recognized, but a recent revision has proposed the Niger-Congo family, which encompasses most of the continent. The Hamitic family has largely disappeared, and Bushman and Hottentot are grouped as an independent "Click" family. Despite the variety of languages, there is evidence of intertribal contacts and the use of auxiliary languages, such as Kiswahili, Lingala, and Kikongo, which facilitate communication across different regions. The use of European languages in education and administration is also discussed, with questions about the relation between language and thought, and the feasibility of printing books for smaller language communities.

Cultural Orientations

On the broadest level, African cultures share many similarities that distinguish them from other world regions. At more local levels, specific cultural traits mark off each group from its neighbors. The article emphasizes the need to balance similarities against differences as the only valid methodological procedure. It also highlights the potential tensions arising from the disregard of ethnic lines in partitioning the continent, as seen in the demands of groups like the Ewe of Togoland and the peoples of the Cameroons to be reunited across colonial borders.

Conclusion

The article concludes by emphasizing the importance of considering both the diversity and unity of African cultures. It underscores the need to balance similarities against differences and to regard the indigenous African and his traditional ways of life as a major factor in determining the facts and assessing the probable results of change in the continent. The article provides a comprehensive overview of the complexities and dynamics of African cultures, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of the region's diversity and unity.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FROM THE ARTICLE

Here are 20 essay questions and answers based on the article "Peoples and Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa" by Melville J. Herskovits:

Answers

1. What is the significance of physical types in the relations between African peoples?

The significance of physical types in the relations between African peoples is that they have not significantly influenced contacts between indigenous Africans. Despite variations in stature, body build, hair form, and facial characteristics, all Africans belong to the Negro race, which is a constant across the region. The principal subdivisions encompass great areas, and while there are instances of significant differences, such as in Ruanda-Urundi, these are not numerous. The racial problem, as seen in the color bar of the Union of South Africa, has become important only with recent outside contacts and is not a major factor in the relations between indigenous African peoples.

2. How do linguistic differences reflect the historical and cultural dynamics of sub-Saharan Africa?

Linguistic differences in sub-Saharan Africa reflect the historical and cultural dynamics of the region through the process of contact, change, and consolidation. The region has over 700 languages, which can be classified into a few major language families. The Sudanic, Bantu, and Hamitic families were previously recognized, but a recent revision has proposed the Niger-Congo family, which encompasses most of the continent. The Hamitic family has largely disappeared, and Bushman and Hottentot are grouped as an independent "Click" family. The use of auxiliary languages, such as Kiswahili, Lingala, and Kikongo, facilitates communication across different regions. The linguistic picture also highlights the existence of intertribal contacts and the unities that mark large areas of the continent.

3. What are the broad cultural orientations that distinguish African cultures from those of other regions?

The broad cultural orientations that distinguish African cultures from those of other regions include elements that are continental in their distribution and mark off these ways of life from those of other major world regions. These elements include the use of specific cultural traits that distinguish major culture types of the continent. At the tribal or local group level, specific characteristics mark each group off from its neighbors. These characteristics are variations on broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution. The cultural orientations also reflect the dynamic nature of contemporary Africa, which is an extension of a continuing characteristic of African life made apparent by the study of African prehistory.

4. How do colonial boundaries affect the cultural and ethnic identities of African peoples?

Colonial boundaries have often disregarded ethnic lines, creating potential tensions as groups demand to be reunited across borders. This is evident in the demands of groups like the Ewe of Togoland and the peoples of the Cameroons to be reunited across colonial boundaries. The drawing of colonial boundaries has imposed artificial divisions on ethnic groups, leading to tensions and conflicts. The disregard of ethnic lines in partitioning the continent has the potential to create significant sources of tension and instability, as seen in the demands for reunification of ethnic groups across borders.

5. What are the implications of the use of European languages in African education and administration?

The use of European languages in African education and administration has both positive and negative implications. On the positive side, it facilitates intertribal communication and helps in the spread of knowledge. However, it also poses questions about the relation between language and thought, and the feasibility of printing books for smaller language communities. The use of European languages can impose an unreasonable handicap to comprehension, expression, and creativity for Africans. Additionally, the use of different European languages in different African territories can function as a divisive force, as seen in certain African reactions to proposals for a union of West African territories. This highlights the need to balance the use of European languages with the preservation and development of indigenous African languages.

6. How do migrations in Africa influence the distribution of physical types, languages, and cultures?

Migrations in Africa have influenced the distribution of physical types, languages, and cultures through the process of contact, change, and consolidation. Migrations have resulted in continuous mixture in central and eastern Africa, and have produced the many Negroid groupings, from the Cameroons and French Equatorial Africa south to Angola and south-eastward to Mozambique and the Union, that exhibit the heterogeneity resulting from continuing ancestral crossing. This has led to the continuous mixture of physical types, languages, and cultures across the region.

7. What is the historical and cultural significance of the Niger-Congo language family in sub-Saharan Africa?

The Niger-Congo language family is significant in sub-Saharan Africa because it encompasses most of the continent. This family includes languages previously termed Sudanic and the Bantu forms of speech. The Niger-Congo family reflects the historical and cultural dynamics of the region, as it has evolved through the process of contact, change, and consolidation. It highlights the unities that mark large areas of the continent and the intertribal contacts that have resulted in the sharing of cultural and linguistic traits across wide regions.

8. How do the cultural traits of different African groups vary from each other?

The cultural traits of different African groups vary from each other in terms of specific characteristics that mark each group off from its neighbors. These characteristics are variations on broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution. At the tribal or local group level, specific cultural traits distinguish each group from its neighbors. These traits are described in intensive studies of specific societies and are from the comparative point of view to be regarded as variations on the broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution.

9. What are the primary sources of tension in African cultural and ethnic identities?

The primary sources of tension in African cultural and ethnic identities are the disregard of ethnic lines in partitioning the continent and the imposition of artificial divisions on ethnic groups. This has led to tensions and conflicts as groups demand to be reunited across borders. The disregard of ethnic lines in partitioning the continent has the potential to create significant sources of tension and instability, as seen in the demands for reunification of ethnic groups across borders.

10. How do the physical characteristics of African peoples influence their social and political structures?

The physical characteristics of African peoples influence their social and political structures in that they have not significantly influenced contacts between indigenous Africans. Despite variations in stature, body build, hair form, and facial characteristics, all Africans belong to the Negro race, which is a constant across the region. The principal subdivisions encompass great areas, and while there are instances of significant differences, such as in Ruanda-Urundi, these are not numerous. The racial problem, as seen in the color bar of the Union of South Africa, has become important only with recent outside contacts and is not a major factor in the relations between indigenous African peoples

11. What is the role of auxiliary languages in facilitating intertribal communication in sub-Saharan Africa?

The role of auxiliary languages in facilitating intertribal communication in sub-Saharan Africa is significant. Languages such as Kiswahili, Lingala, and Kikongo have been used as auxiliary languages to facilitate communication across different regions. These languages have helped in bridging linguistic differences and have enabled intertribal communication, which is essential for the unity and cohesion of African societies.

12. How do the cultural similarities and differences among African groups affect their relations with each other?

The cultural similarities and differences among African groups affect their relations with each other in that they both unite and divide these groups. The cultural similarities reflect the unities that mark large areas of the continent, while the differences highlight the specific characteristics that distinguish each group from its neighbors. These similarities and differences must be balanced against each other to give perspective against which current happenings are to be projected.

13. What are the primary factors influencing the use of European languages in African education and administration?

The primary factors influencing the use of European languages in African education and administration are the need for intertribal communication and the facilitation of access to the world's knowledge. European languages are used to facilitate communication across different regions and to provide access to global knowledge. However, this use also poses questions about the relation between language and thought, and the feasibility of printing books for smaller language communities.

14. How do the cultural orientations of African peoples reflect their historical and contemporary experiences?

The cultural orientations of African peoples reflect their historical and contemporary experiences in that they are an extension of a continuing characteristic of African life made apparent by the study of African prehistory. The cultural orientations also reflect the dynamic nature of contemporary Africa, which is an extension of a continuing characteristic of African life. This dynamic nature is evident in the study of African prehistory and the distribution of physical types, languages, and cultures across the region.

15. What are the primary sources of tension in the use of European languages in African education and administration?

The primary sources of tension in the use of European languages in African education and administration are the questions about the relation between language and thought, and the feasibility of printing books for smaller language communities. The use of European languages can impose an unreasonable handicap to comprehension, expression, and creativity for Africans. Additionally, the use of different European languages in different African territories can function as a divisive force, as seen in certain African reactions to proposals for a union of West African territories.

16. How do the cultural traits of specific African groups, such as the Ewe and the peoples of the Cameroons, reflect their historical and cultural backgrounds?

The cultural traits of specific African groups, such as the Ewe and the peoples of the Cameroons, reflect their historical and cultural backgrounds in that they are variations on broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution. These traits are described in intensive studies of specific societies and are from the comparative point of view to be regarded as variations on the broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution. The cultural traits of these groups also reflect the dynamic nature of contemporary Africa, which is an extension of a continuing characteristic of African life.

17. What are the cultural and linguistic differences between the classical Negroids of the Guinea Coast and the Sudanese type?

The cultural and linguistic differences between the classical Negroids of the Guinea Coast and the Sudanese type are significant. The classical Negroids of the Guinea Coast are characterized by dark skin, long-headedness, broad noses, everted lips, small ears, and a slender build. The Sudanese type, on the other hand, is characterized by marginal features and is found in the northern parts of Africa. These differences reflect the historical and cultural dynamics of the region, as they have evolved through the process of contact, change, and consolidation.

18. How do the cultural and linguistic similarities among African groups contribute to their unity and diversity?

The cultural and linguistic similarities among African groups contribute to their unity and diversity in that they reflect the unities that mark large areas of the continent. These similarities highlight the intertribal contacts and the sharing of cultural and linguistic traits across wide regions. At the same time, the differences among these groups highlight their specific characteristics and variations on broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution. This balance between similarities and differences provides perspective against which current happenings are to be projected.

19. What are the primary sources of tension in the use of European languages in African education and administration?

The primary sources of tension in the use of European languages in African education and administration are the questions about the relation between language and thought, and the feasibility of printing books for smaller language communities. The use of European languages can impose an unreasonable handicap to comprehension, expression, and creativity for Africans. Additionally, the use of different European languages in different African territories can function as a divisive force, as seen in certain African reactions to proposals for a union of West African territories.

20. How do the cultural and ethnic identities of African peoples influence their demands for political unity and autonomy?

The cultural and ethnic identities of African peoples influence their demands for political unity and autonomy in that they reflect the historical and cultural dynamics of the region. The cultural and linguistic similarities among African groups contribute to their unity and diversity, while the differences highlight their specific characteristics and variations on broader cultural themes of wider areal or continental distribution. These identities also reflect the disregard of ethnic lines in partitioning the continent, which has led to tensions and conflicts as groups demand to be reunited across borders.